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.We cannot predict how certain events will turn out, only the chance that they will result in one of several outcomes.That idea was developed sixty years ago, back in the twenties—mainly by Born.But many people found it hard to accept.Einstein himself was one of those.From him, and others who felt the same, came another idea: that we have not been observing 'reality' at the most fundamental level in quantum experiments.""You've lost me." Greer's face was intent, and another lit cigarette was smoldering unattended in the ashtray."What do you mean by 'observing reality'?""The easiest analogy for you might be with the behavior of an ordinary gas.We seem to have well-defined quantities like temperature and pressure for a gas, right? We can measure them, they are smoothly varying functions.Now look at a very small quantity of gas, and you start to see the effects of individual molecules.The idea of a single pressure, or a single well-defined temperature, disappears.In its place we have to think of the separate gas molecules, and their motion.They are the hidden variables of the system, the ones that control its basic behavior.Pressure, temperature—they have become statistical ideas."Wenziger was surprised at the intelligence in the other's tanned face.Greer was nodding slowly, concentrating on every word."I'm with you again.You're suggesting that the probabilities you find in quantum theory are like fluctuations in gas pressure.They only seem like chance because we can't observe the smaller things that decide them—the 'hidden variables'.Couldn't you look more closely and see what's missing from the picture?""It's not that simple.I'm making it too easy, to get the point across.Nissom starts from a subtle problem in quantum mechanics, what's usually called the paradox of Einstein, Rosen and Podolsky.Most people dismiss that.He accepts it and uses it to introduce new basic variables.""You mean smaller particles, things that are too small to observe?""Not that." Wenziger seemed easier, back in the familiar role of teacher."Not particles.Nissom introduces a new set of field equations.Those are his variables.The four conventional fields—strong, weak, gravitational and electromagnetic—and the elementary particles, they arise as interference effects from the new fields.It is very elegant, and beautifully developed.""So why don't you believe it? I don't track you fully, but it all sounds pretty plausible to me." Greer picked up his neglected cigarette, took one long puff, and ground it out."If Nissom's as smart as you say," he went on."Isn't he sure to be right? Would he take a thing that far and still be wrong? I still don't see how you get from where you are to particle and field deflectors.That's what Nissom was talking about to Perling, practical defense against anything you can think of—for an individual.That's what got me excited.""With a radical new theory you can expect a lot of new physical results—if it is correct." Wenziger's glasses had come off again and his eyes seemed to be focused on infinity."But only if it is correct.I'm not objecting to Laurance Nissom's ideas because of the theory, you know.""Then why do you think he's wrong?""The experiments.It's the experiments that he wants to do that let him down."He hesitated, then replaced his glasses and looked at Greer."Did any of your physics courses ever mention Eddington, Arthur Stanley Eddington?""No.Physicist?""Yes, but astronomer and mathematician might be a better description.He was a leading relativist, and also the key figure in the development of modern astrophysics."Greer shook his head."Don't know him.Was he another 'hidden variable' man?"Zdenek Wenziger frowned and thought for a moment."Not to my knowledge, but he might have been.That's not why I mention him.Eddington had a brilliant career in England from about 1910 onwards up through the thirties.Then about 1940 he came up with a whole new theory—one that was supposed to explain all the main physical constants of nature with purely mathematical arguments."Greer sniffed."He's one up on me.I never managed to explain anything using math.""It was impressive.Eddington had great mathematical ability and superb physical intuition.Physicists and astronomers all over the world took his 'fundamental theory' very seriously.It was profound, and it was very difficult to understand.Unfortunately, it had one deadly flaw.""It wasn't right?""In one crucial respect.It did not describe the physical world that we live in."Greer swung his chair forward."Damn you, Wenziger, you have the most back-assed way of getting to the point
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